History Paper 1877 – 1900

Over the old age of 1877 to the 1900s many changes were occurring. The entropyern cities were changing faster than anyone couldve imagined with mod transportation, ripening industries, and the end of slavery. Not to mention, the changing role of women. In the New South by the year 1880, steel and iron mills were progressing across the North. Railroad wind was fast paced in the 1880s. Comparing 1880 to 1890 the tracks had doubled with Texas and Georgia having the biggest growth. In 1886, an agreement was made to have a standardized width on the railroad tracks.This would armed service create a national transportation system. By creating this, the increasing demand of obtaining and selling goods would be fulfilled at a faster pace. Also, with this new transportation came new land for families to move into for work. The textile industriousness was growing significantly also because more people were traveling to the South. With immigrants and Southerners needing a steady crap of income entrepreneurs took on the textile business non only to build good relationships with the people of the South but also to be less dependent on capital and manufactured products from the North.Tobacco was also a growing business with Virginia leading in the sales of chewing tobacco plant across the nation. When the discovery of bright-leaf tobacco was made, tobacco habits were changed into the form of cigarettes by James B. Duke. He had the first cigarette-making machine installed in his plant and by the year 1900, Dukes tobacco company was controlling lxxx percent of tobacco manufacturing in the United States. With these booming industries came low wages. The South experienced a downfall with the rise they were experiencing.Since the workers of the South were poorly paid they could not afford to buy much so the market in the South for manufactured goods was kept low as was the consumer demand. Low wages only brought in immigrants that were low-skilled so skilled laborers we re more likely to go north and work complicated machinery to produce high-quality goods. The South had close to no capital reserves to aggrandize leaving Northern financers to purchase the five major rail lines serving the South at a bargain after failing during a first gear in the 1870s.Since the South was such a risk to invest in the textile industry stayed small-scale. On the other hand, the Souths largest industry, the lumber industry grew. Since it required little capital and provided unskilled laborers with a job, these raw materials were quickly produced. The tobacco industry unlike the textile industry avoided some turmoil. James B. Dukes tobacco company was profitable enough to become its own bank. With enough capital to have the latest technologies on his plants, he was fortunate enough to buy out his competitors.In the late nineteenth century women began fighting to improve the status of women, sometimes by joining with men. Because women in the South were left with pro viding for their families when the South alienated the war, some never wanting to depend on men again and others who dealt with Southern men who were shaken by defeat, they were not as motivated to bunk reform and threaten gender role changes. Despite such battles, southern women found opportunities in schools, and stores for example that expanded their social role twenty years after 1880.Women of the South, both black and blank of the middle class, played important roles in civic work and reform. These middle class women began performing in activities ranging from lobbying for discordant causes, taking leadership on plenty of important issues and organizing clubs. Some of the first womens clubs starting in the 1880s were self-improvement societies that did not care for reform. Womens clubs grew and by 1890, most towns and cities had several womens clubs. Some of the clubs and its members even began taking part in political issues. eyepatch both black and fresh women had their clubs, the activities of black womens clubs were slightly different in comparison to the white womens clubs. Black womens clubs looked out for the women and children in their cities, supporting daycare facilities for works mothers and settlement houses in poor black neighborhoods. They also established homes for single black women so that they would not be an easy victim to sexual exploitation. battle of Atlantas Neighborhood Union founded playgrounds, a health center and also received a grant to improve black education.These women also worked for woman suffrage. While both groups of women had strong beliefs and motives to speak their minds they rarely communicated with each other. Some white women would even use racial solidarity as a weapon to promote white womens right to vote. They did this to prove the point that with white men and womens votes combined they could further white interests. The black generation that came of age in this surroundings where blacks and whites could maintain cordial relations expected many privileges in society like the right to vote, work and attend school.Among these, they also wanted self-respect, dignity and to be considered equal to the white men and women. White southerners who came of age in this same environment saw blacks as the enemy. They wanted to preserve white purity and dominance. Because the tensions between blacks and whites continued to grow, not only on the view of equality but in jobs as well, violence against black people boomed in the 1890s. Some of these slam-bang crimes included lynching. After two of the unspoken rules had been violated the lynchings started.White men began to see themselves as protectors of the weak, but it more importantly reinforced white solidarity and reminded the blacks that white conquest ruled the South. When the Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed freedmen the right to vote, poll taxes, literacy test, understanding clause and grandfather clause were all some of the disfranchising legislation that began to prevent blacks from voting. Blacks began moving to cities in the South where they could be somewhat free from white surveillance after feeling like American democracy had hung a whites only sign.Blacks began to create their own bounteous communities and the businesses and institutions they built during Reconstruction began to grow and some even flourish. By the year 1900, black southerners had less political power than they had before and were far more separate from white southerners. Despite every obstacle, they were successful in building a comfortable community life and a rising middle class, all date being in a restricted environment.The changes brought over the time frame of 1877 to the 1900s were the framework for some of the opportunities we have today. The South had plenty going on over the years, from building and trying to keep industries, to men and women moving into the Southern cities with new opportunity that their ancestors did not have an d Blacks fighting for their rights when white solidarity was having such a heavy effect on their lifestyles. The South was fast growing but holding itself back with segregation, and black disfranchisement.

The Metaparadigm of Nursing: Present Status and Future Refinements

The Metaparadigm of breast feeding Present military position and Fut ure Refinement s Jacqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. Abstract The rudimentary concepts and themes of t he chequer of bear ar identified and formalized as nurses metaparadigm. Examples elaborate the counselor-at-law willd by the metaparadigm for theory development. Refinements of the metaparadigm through abstract illustrations and programs of nursing question are proposed. T he discipline of nursing will advance only through continuous and systematic development and test of nursing noesis.Several recent reviews of the status of nursing theory development indicate that nursing has n o established tradition of scholarship. Reviewers have pointed out that roughly work appears unfocused and uncoordinated, as each scholar moves quickly from superstar topic to another and as few scholars combine their efforts in circumscribed areas (Chinn, 1983 Feldman, 1980 Hardy, 1983 Roy, 1983 Walker, 1983). imme nse areas for theory development are, however, beginning to be recognized. Analysis of past and present writings of nurse scholars indicates that theoretic and empirical work has always centered on just a few global oncepts and has always dealt with certain ordinary themes. This paper identifies these central concepts and themes and formalizes them as nursings metaparadigm. Examples are given to illustrate the direction provided by the metaparadigm for theory development. The paper continues with a discussion o f refinements of t he metaparadigm needed at the levels of jacqueline Fawcett, Ph. D. , F. A. A. N. , i s coadjutor Professor, and Section Chairperson, Science and Role Development, School of breast feeding, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Page 84 disciplinary matrices and exemplars nd concludes with proposals for future work needed to advance to the discipline of nursing. Present view of the Metaparadigm of Nursing The metaparadigrn of any discipline i s a stat ement or group of statements identifying its relevant phenomena. These statements spell out the phenomena of interest in a most global manner. No attempt i s made to be particularised or cover at the metaparadigm level. Eckberg & Hill (1979) explained that the metaparadigm acts as an encapsulating unit, or framework, within which the more restricted . . . structures develop (p. 927).You can read also Coronary Artery Disease Nursing Care PlanThe Central Concepts of NursingEvidence supporting the public of a metaparadigm of nursing i s accumulating. A review of the literature on theory development in nursing reveals a consensus about the central concepts of the discipline-person, environment, health, and nursing (Fawcett, 1983 Flaskerud & Halloran, 1980). This consensus i s documented by the following statements O ne may. . . demarcate nursing in terms of four subsets 1 ) persons providing fretting, 2) persons with health problems receiving care, 3) the environment in which care i s given, and 4 ) an end-state, well- macrocosm. (Walker, 1971, p. 429) The major concepts identified (from an nalysis of the components, themes, topics, and threads of the conceptual frameworks of 50 baccalaureate nursing programs) were Man, Society, Health, and Nursing. (Yura &Torres, 1975, p. 22) The units person, environment, health, and nursing particularise the phenomena of interest to nursing science. (Fawcett, 1978, p. 25) Nursing studies the wholeness or health of humans, recognizing that humans are in continuous interaction with their environments. (Donaldson & Crowley, 1978, p. 119) Image The Journal of Nursing learning Nursings focus i s persons, their environments, their health and nursing itself. Bush, 1979, p. 20) Nursing elements are nursing acts, the p atient, and health. (Stevens, 1979, p. l l ) The foci of nursing are the individual in relation to health, the environment, and the change process, whether it be maturation, adaptation, or coping. (Barnard, 1980, p. 208) Nursing i s defined as the diagnosis and treatment of human repartees to actual or potential health problems. (American Nurses Association, 1980, p. 9 ) The four conceptual areas of nursing are the person receiving nursing the environment within which the person exists the health-illness continuum within which the erson falls at the duration of the interaction with the nurse and finally, nursing actions themselves. (Flaskerud, cited in Brink, 1980, p. 665) The domain of nursing has always included the nurse, the patient, the situation in which they find themselves, and the purpose of their being together, or the health of the patient. In more formalized terms, . . . the major components of the nursing metalparadigm are nursing (as an action), thickening (human being), environment (of the client and of the nurse-client), and health. ( impudentlyman, 1983, p. 388) There i s general agreement that the central oncepts of the discipline of nursing are the nature of nursing, th e individual who received nursing care, society-environment, and health. (Chinn, 1983, p. 396) These statements indicate that there i s healthy agreement among scholars as t o the concepts central to the discipline of nursing. In fact, a review of the literature revealed no contradictory statements. RecurringThemes The relationships between and among the concepts-person, environment, health, nursing-are elaborated in recurring themes found in works of nurse scholars since Nightingale (1859). These themes are listed in Table 1.Summer, 1984, Volumo XVI, blo. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing put back 1 THEMES OF THE YETAPARAWW OF NURSING 1. The principles and laws that say the conduct-process, well-being. and optimum function of human beings, sick or well. 2. The patterning of human behavior in interaction with the environment in normal life events and critical life situations. 3. The process by which positive changes in health status are elfected. (Donaldson& Crowley, 1978, p. 113 Gortne r, 1980, p. 180) The four central concepts and three recurring themes identify the phenomena central to the discipline of nursing in an abstract, global manner.Read also Recording General Fund Operating Budget and Operating TransactionsThey represent the metaparadigm. As such, they have provided well-nigh direction for nursing theory development. As Newman (1983) explained It i s within the context of these four major components and their interrelationships that theory development in nursing has proceeded. Theoretical differences join to the emphasis placed on one or more of the components and to the way in which their relationships are viewed. (p. 388) The relationship between the concepts person and health i s considered in the first theme. Theories addressing this theme tell apart, explain, or predict individuals behavior during eriods of wellness and illness. Newmans (1979) theory of health i s one example. This theory includes the concepts of movement, time, space, and consc iousness. Newman proposes that the elaboration of consciousness i s what life, and therefore health, i s a ll about (p. 66). Another example i s Orems (1980) theory of self-care, which maintains that self-care and care of dependent family members are learned behaviors that purposely regulate human structural integrity, functioning, and human development (p. 28). S till another example i s Orerns theory of self-care deficits.This theory maintains that individuals are subject t o healthrelated or health-derived limitations that render them incapable of continuous selftare or dependent care or that result in ineffective or incomplete care (p. 2 7). The relationships among the concepts person, environment, and health are considered in the second theme. Theories addressing this theme Summer, 1B84, bulk XVI, No. 3 describe, explain, or predict individuals behavioral patterns as they are influenced by environmental factors during periods of wellness and illness. Such theories place the in dividuals ithin the context of their surrounding environment rather than considering them in isolation, as in the first theme. Roy and Roberts (1981) theory of the person as an adaptive system i s an example. This theory proposes that the person i s a system that adapts to a constantly changing environment. Adaptation i s accomplished through the action of coping mechanisms called the regulator and the cognator. The relationships among the person, health, and nursing are considered in the third theme. Environment may also be taken into account here. This heme i s addressed by theories about nursing practice. These theories describe or explain nursing processes or predict the effects of nursing actions. major powers (1981) theory of goal attainment i s one example. King explains that a paradigm, or disciplinary matrix, i s more repressive than a metaparadigm, and that i t represents the shared commitments of any disciplinary community, including exemplary generalizations, beliefs , values, and a host of other elements (p. 926). The authors went on to say, A disciplinary matrix may be seen as the special subculture of a community. It does ot refer to the beliefs of an entire discipline (e. g. biology), but more correctly t o those beliefs of a specialized community (e. g. phage workers in biology). (p. 926) Identification of the metaparadigm i s an important quality i n the evolution of a scholarly tradition for nursing. The n e x t step i s r efinement o f t h e metaparadigm concepts and themes, which occurs at the level of the paradigm or disciplinary matrix, rather than at that of the metaparadigm. The Disciplinary Matrix Eckberg and Hill (1979) explained virtually disciplines have more than one disciplinary matrix.Each one represents a typical frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Furthermore, each disciplinary matrix reflects a particular research tradition by identifying the phenomena that are within its domain of inq uiry, the methods that are to be used to investigate these phenomena, how theories about these phenomena are to be tested, and how d ata are to be collected (Laudan, 1981, p. 151). More specifically, the research tradition of each disciplinary matrix includes six rules that encompass all phases of an investigation. The first rule identifies the specific nature f the problem to be studied, the purposes to be fulfilled by the investigation, or both. The second rule identifies the phenomena that are to be studied. The third rule identifies the research techniques that are to be employed and the research tools that are to be used. The fourth rule identifies the settings in which data are to be gathered and the subjects who are to provide the data. The fifth rule identifies the methods to be employed in reducing and analyzing the data. The sixth rule identifies the nature of contributions that the research will make to the promotion of knowledge. (Schlotfeldt, 1975, p. ) In nursing, di sciplinary matrices are most clearly exemplified by such conceptual models as Johnsons (1980) Behavioral System regulate, Kings (1981) Open Systems Model, Levines (1973) saving Model, Neumans (1982) Systems Model, Orems (1980) Self-care Model, Rogers (1980) Life Process Model, and Roys (1984) Adaptation Model. Each Image The Journal of Nursing lore Page 85 . . . nurse and client interactions are characterized by verbal and nonverbal communication, in which information i s exchanged and interpreted by transactions, in which values, of necessity, and wants of each ember of the gallus are shared by perceptions of nurse and client and the situation by self in role of client and self in role of nurse and by stressors influencing each person and the situation in time and space. (p. 144) Orems ( 1 980) theory of nursing systems is another example. This theory maintains that nursing systems are create when nurses use their abilities to prescribe, design, and provide nursing for legiti mate patients (as individuals or groups) by performing discrete actions and systems of actions (p. 29). Refinement of the Metaparadigm Metaparadigm of Nursing f these nursing models puts forth a distinctive frame of reference within which the metaparadigm phenomena are viewed. Each provides needed refinement of the metaparadigm by serving as a focus-ruling some things in as relevent, and ruling others out due to their lesser importance (Williams, 1979, p. 96). Conceptual models of nursing are beginning to make major contributions to the development of nursing theory. Theories derived directly from Kings model and from Orems model were identified earlier. A considerable amount of empirical work designed to test unique nursing theories as well as heories borrowed from other disciplines i s n ow being guided by nursing models. Some of the studies are listed in Table 2. TABLE 2 Examples of Research Derived From Conceptual Models of Nursing Oorothy Johnsons BehavioralSystem Model -An ins trument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing The crabmeat patient. Part I (Derdiarian, 1983). -An instrument for theory and research development using the behavioral systems model for nursing The cancer patient. Part II (Derdiarian & Forsythe, 1983). -Achievement behavior in chronically ill children (Holaday, 1 974) Maternal response to their chronically ill infants attachment behavior of crying (Holaday, 1981) -Maternal conceptual set development Identifyingpatterns of maternal response to chronically ill infant crying (Holaday, 1 982) -Development of a research tool Patient indicators of nursing care (Majesky, Brester, & Nishio, 1 978) Myra Levines Conservation Model - effectuate of lifting techniques on energy expenditure A preliminary investigation (Geden, 1 982) A comparision of two bearing-downtechniques during the second stage of labor (Yeates & Roberts, 1984) Betty Neumans Systems Model Effects of information on postsurgical co ping (Ziemer. 1 983) Dorothea Orems Self-care Model -Application of Orems supposed constructs to selfcare medication behaviors in the elderly (Harper, 1984) -Development of an instrument to measure exercise of self-care agency (Kearney & Fleischer, 1 979) Martha Rogers Life Process Model -The relationship between identification and patterns of change in spouses body orbits during and after pregnancy (Fawcett, 1977) -Patients perceptions of time current research (Fitzpatrick, 1 980) -Reciprocy and helicy used t o relate mEGF and wound healing (Gill & Atwood, 1 981) Therapeutic touch as energy exchange interrogation the theory (Ouinn, 1 984) Callista Roys Adaptation Model -Needs of cesarean birth parents (Fawcett, 1981) -An exploratory study of antenatal preparation for ce- Page 86 sarean birth (Fawcett & Burritt, in press) -Clinical tool development for adult chemotherapy patients Process and content (Lewis, Firsich. & Parsell, 1 979) -Content analysis of interviews using a nurs ing model A look at parents adapting to the bear upon of childhood cancer (Smith, Garvis, & Martinson, 1 983) Despite the contributions already made by nursing models to theory development, much more work i s needed.In particular, rules addressing methodological analysis and instrumentation must be specified. Moreover, programs of research emanating from each model must be conducted to refute or validate nursing theories. Programmatic research probably i s carried out most expediently by communities of scientists. Hardy (1983) explained that each community of scientists i s . . . a g roup of persons w h o are aware of their uniqueness and the separate identity of their group. The have a special coherence which separates them from neighboring groups, and this special bond means they have a shared set of values and a common commitment which operates as hey work together t o achieve a common goal. Coordination of their activities may include interaction among the coordination of insti tutions, organizations, groups, and individuals. Such coordinated groups hold a common perspective, common values and common bonds, a nd they have common sets of activities and functions which they scarper out to achieve a common outcome. (p. 430) Each community of scientists, then, represents a distinctive subculture, or disciplinary matrix, of the parent discipline. It can be argued that communities of scientists may be formed outside the organizing framework of nursing models.However, it also can be argued that conceptual models of nursing, like the disciplinary matrices of other disciplines, are the most logical nuclei for communities of scientists. This principle i s supported by three facts. First, the curricula of most schools of nursing now are based on conceptual models. Second, most graduate programs and many an(prenominal) undergraduate programs offer courses dealing with the content and uses of nursing models. And third, clinical agencies are beginning to organize the delivery of nursing care according to the tenets of conceptual models. image The Journal of Nursing Scholarship Collectively, these facts mean that cademicians, students, clinicians, and administrators are thinking about nursing theory, nursing research, and nursing practice within the context of explicit conceptual models. It i s probable, then, that eventually the development of a ll nursing theory will be directed by nursing models. It may even by possible to categorize seemingly isolated past and current work according to conceptual models. This should provide more organization for extant nursing knowledge and should identify gaps and needed areas of inquiry more readily than is possible now. Moreover, such an endeavor should identify members of disparate ommunities of scientists to each other as w ell as t o the larger scientific community. Exemplars S till get on refinement of the metaparadigm i s needed a t the most restrictive level-that of the exemplar. Eckberg and Hill (1979) identified the function of an exemplar as permitting a way of seeing ones subject matter on a concrete level, thereby allowing puzzle solving to take place (p. 927). They went on to explain For a discipline to b e a science it must control i n puzzle-solving activity but puzzle solving can only be carried out if a community shares concrete puzzle solutions, or exemplars.It i s t he exemplar that i s i mportant, not merely the disciplinary matrix, and certainly not merely the general presuppositions of t he community i. e. , the metaparadigm. The latter may be important, but they do n ot direct ongoing, dayto-day research. (p. 927) There i s some read of exemplars in nursing. This includes but is not limited to Fitzpatricks (1980) programmatic research on time perception studies o effects of information f about a threatening procedure on a patients responses to the procedure (e. g. , Hartfied, Cason, & Cason, 1982 Johnson, Fuller, Endress, & Rice, 1978 Ziemer, 19831, and inv estigations of actors contributing to the outcomes of social support (Barnard, Brandt, Raff, & Carroll, 1984 in press). These researchers are beginning to solve some of the major puzzles of nursing. However, more work i s needed to identify other puzzles and to develop methods for their solutions. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 Metaparadigm of Nursing Conclusion It is time to formally accept the central concepts and themes of nursing as the metaparadigm of the discipline. It i s also time to direct efforts toward furf ther refinement o this metaparadigm by developing specific rules for the empirical work needed to generate nd test nursing theories within the context of conceptual models. The metaparadigm must be refined still further through the developing of new puzzle-solving activities that will provide answers to the most pressing problems encountered by nurse clinicians, educators, and ddministrators. Any one of these activities would in itself make a hearty contribution to t he discipline a ll three could quite possibly be the major accomplishments of the decade. As used here, theory development reft. r to generation a nd testing of theory. and encornpasiei ivory tower theorizing as well as empirical rewarch.References American Nurses As5ocialion. Nursing A social policy statement. Kansas City, Missouri ANA, 1980. Barnard, K. E. acquaintance for practice Direction5 for the future. Nursing Research, 1980. 29, 208-21 2. Barnard, K . E. , Brandt, P. , Raff. 8.. & Carroll, P. (Ed,. ). Social support and families of vulnerable infants. New York March of Dimes, 1984. Brink, P. 1. Editorial. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 1980, 2, 665-666. Buih, H . A. Models for nursing. Advances i n Nursing Science, 1979, l ( 2 ) . 13-21. Chinn, P. L. Nursing theory development Where we have been and where we are going.In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession A time to speak. New York McCraw-Hill, 1983. Donaldson, S. K. , & Crowley, D. M . The discipline of nurs ing. Nursing Outlook, 1978, 26, 113-120. Eckberg, D. L .. & Hill, L. , Jr. The paradigm concept and sociology A critical review. American Sociological Review, 1979, 44,925-937. Fawcett, 1. The what of theory development. In conjecture developmenk What, why, how? (pp. 17-33). New York National League for Nursing, 1978. Fawcett, 1. (1983). Hallmarks of succeeder in nursing theory development. In P. L. Chinn, (Ed. ), Advances i n nursing theory development (pp. -17). Rockville, Maryland Aspen. Feldrnan, H. R. Nursing research in the 1980s Issues and implications. Advances in N ursing Science, 1980, 3(1)85-92. Fitzpatrick, 1. J . Patients perceptions of time Current research. International Nursing Review, 1980, 27, 148-153, 160. Flaskerud. 1. H. , & Halloran, E. J. Areas of agreement in nursing theory development. Advances in Nursing Science, 1980, 3(1), 1-7. Hardy. M. Metaparadigrnsand theory development. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession A t ime t o speak. New York McCr aw-Hill, 1983. Hartfield. M. k Cason, C. L. , & Cason, C. J . Effects of , information about a threatening procedure on patients expectations and emotional distress. Nursing Research, 1 982,31,202-206. lohnson, D. E . The behavioral system model for nursing. In J . P. Riehl & C. Roy, (Eds. ), Conceptual models for nursing practice (2nd ed. ). New York Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1980. Johnson. 1 . E. , Fuller, S . 5.. Endress, M. P . , & Rice, V S. . Altering patients responses to surgery An extension and replication. Research in Nursing and Health, 1978, 1 , 111-121. King. I. M. A theory for nursing Systems, concepts, process. New York Wiley, 1981. Neurnan, B .The Neuman systems model Application t o nursing education and practice. New York Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1982. Newrnan, M. A. Theory development in nursing. Philadelphia F. A. Davis, 1979. Newrnan, M . A. The continuing revolution A history of nursing science. I n N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession A time t o speak. N ew York McGrawHill, 1983. Nightingale, F. Notes on nursing What it is, a nd what it i s not. London Harrison, 1859. (Reprinted by L i p pincott, 1946) Orem, D. E. Nursing Concepts of practice (2nd ed. ). New York McCraw-Hill, 1980. Rogers, M. E . A n introduction to t he theoretical basisk f nursing. Philadelphia F. A. Davis, 1970. Roy, C. I ntroduction to nursing An adaptation model. (2nd Ed. ). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey PrenticeHall, 1984. Roy, C. Theory development in nursing Proposal for direction. In N. L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession A time t o speak. New York McCraw-Hill, 1983. Roy, C. , & Roberts, S . L . Theory construction i n nursing An adaptation model. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Prentice-Hall, 1981. Schlotfeldt, R. M. The needs for a conceptual framework, In P . J. Verhonick (Ed. ), Nursing research I. Boston Little, Brown. 1975. Stevens, 8. J. N ursing theory.Analysis, application, evaluation. Boston Little, Brown, 1979. Walker, L. 0. Toward a clearer und erstanding of the concept of nursing theory. Nursing Research, 1971, 20, 428-435. Walker, L. 0. Theory and research in the development of nursing as a discipline Retrospect and prospect. In N . L. Chaska (Ed. ), The nursing profession A time to speak. New York McCraw-Hill, 1983. Williams, C. A. The nature and development of conceptual frameworks. In F. S . Downs & I . W . Fleming, (Eds. ) Issues in nursing research. New York Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1979. Ziemer, M. M. Providing patients with information rior t o surgery and the report frequency of coping behaviors and development of symptoms foll owing surgery. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1982. A Response to D r. J . Fawcetts Paper The Metaparadigm of Nursing Present Status and Fut ure Refinement s June N. Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D. D r. Fawcetts formulation of a metaparadigm for nursing represents a commendable effort to consolidate competing nursing theories and encompasses enormous potential for th e advancement of nursing knowledge, research, and practice meriting serious consideration by nursing une N . Brodie, R. N. , Ph. D . i s Associate Professor of Nursing Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Summer, 1984, Volume XVI, No. 3 scholars. This response focuses on how she accomplished this task (what she did and how she did it as well as what she didnt do and what needs to be done). Essentially Dr. Fawcetts metaparadigm can be viewed as an evolution of a nursing metaparadigm and an organization of the growth of nursing knowledge rather than as a completed and finalized product. To be more explicit, the basis of the paper exhibits the spirit of Darwinian Evolution and ould be treated as a manifestation of Image The Journal of Nursing Scholarship a transitional phase i n the competition for the survival of the fittest (theory). The metaparadigm represents a serious and scholarly attempt to negotiate entry into a different level of the theoretical arena of nursing k nowledge. This task was accomplished by examining the concepts derived from the phenomena of the discipline and converging these concepts into a context pertinent to the domain of nursing by providing a structure (a metaparadigm) that has the potential of consolidating disparate nursing theories into Page 87

Show and Explain How and When to Seek Advice About Communication

Work 3 Introduction to dialogue in health, social circumspection or childrens and young peoples settings.1. Understand wherefore communicating is important in the work setting1.1 Identify different reasons why people drawPeople communicate in order to establish and keep open relationships with others, to give and receive randomness or instructions, to go through and be understood, to share opinions, knowledge, feelings, emotions.1.2 explain how effective conference affects all aspects of own work communion at work gives cooperation. Effective converse is to understand military help user and assist them in declare to that. Nothing ignore be done properly without a complete communication. As a care worker, if I could not able to communicate with my service user because of communication barrier then the service would be unsuccessful. You have to communicate with your colleague to cooperate your work and authorise job to go smooth.1.3 Explain why it is important to observ e an item-by-items reactions when communicating with themBecause from reaction or body address sometimes you force out understand how they are feeling or reacting. Its important to observe an individuals reaction to make convinced(predicate) the instruction has been understood so that you know whether you remove to align your communication methods. Also it is important so that you can recognise any communication barriers such as language difficulties, hearing difficulties, visual impairments any physical difficulties affecting your communication. 2. Be able to meet the communication and language needs, wishes and preferences of individuals. 2. Find out an individuals communication and language needs, wishes and preferences You need to make sure that you are able to communicate with the people in a different ways. People have a wide range of communication needs, which involve the consideration of many different factors such as heathenish background, language, self-confidence, physical ability. You need to understand and respect all different wishes and preferences. You can learn them by pick outing, observing, meter reading notes and care plans, talking with other staff.2. Demonstrate communication methods that meet an individuals communication needs, wishes and preferencesYou can use verbal and non-verbal methods to communicate. We are using eye-contact, body language, facial expressions or gesture to make discourse easier. We can use things such as hearing aids or glasses to help service user to understand you more clearly.2.3 Show how and when to seek advice about communicationYou can adopt advice to your college, animation care leader, manager, through policies and procedures, other external agencies, trainings. You can and need to ask advice when you have any difficulties to understand other service user because if you dont understand him you cant know what he wants and you can abuse him.3. Be able to reduce barriers to communication. 3.1 Iden tify barriers to communicationThere is many communication barriers like different language, deafness, speech impairment, dementia, health issues, environmental problems, emotional distractions, lack of knowledge, to much noise or to dark. 3.2 Demonstrate how to reduce barriers to communication in different waysIf there is different languages you can ask translator help, in case of deafness you can use body language and gesture or eye-contact, facial expressions. If there is to much noise you can turn of sound source or go where is quiet. With emotional distraction you can try to sort the problem out or wait manger person calms down. With speech impairment you can also use body language. 3.3 Demonstrate ways to check that communication has been understoodObserve reaction of service user. Active listening do their response make sense or do you need to ask questions to clarify. Sometimes when its appropriate, you may re-phrase what theyve said and resound it back to them.3.4 Identify sources of knowledge and support or serve to enable more effective communicationYou always can ask support of your managers, life care leaders, other staff. Also there is specialists services like translators, speech and language services or other people who is more qualified than you.4. Be able to apply principles and practices relating to confidentiality at work4.1 Explain the term confidentialityConfidentiality means not sharing information about people without their knowledge and agreement, and ensuring that pen and electronic information cannot be accessed or read by other people who have no reason to see it.4.2 Demonstrate confidentiality in daylight to day communication, in line with agreed ways of workingIn day to day communication you can keep confidentiality by not telling to another person things he dont need to now or he can use for bad purpose. You can keep all written information safely locked in cabinets. Or you can use advancewords on your important files in co mputer. To maintain confidentiality you might be asked to sing agreement as a part of your employment contract.4.3 Describe situations where information normally considered to be confidential might need to be passed onYou might need to pass on information if you are concerned about that person that he might be in danger. If abuse is suspected, or somebody is talking about suicide.4.4 Explain how and when to seek advice about confidentialityYou can ask advice to your managers, senior staff, through policies and procedures, you can get information in trainings, also you can check information in the internet or books. You need to ask advice is if you dont know what to do or you are concerned about your decision. www. scribd. com http//www. pearsonschoolsandfecolleges. co. uk http//www. studymode. com http//www. google. co. uk

Classical Criminology Theory Essay

What is the classical work of criminology and what are the main points of this theory. Cesare Beccaria was a key thinker of this theory and is also considered by some the get around of modern criminology. Classical school of criminology theory placed emphasis on human reason and destitute will. Second off this theory unlike the others researched the prevention of crime not the criminals. Also, according to this theory, crime was the return of people choosing to do so with the possibility of the consequences be evident. The classical theory of Beccaria and others is what our constitution was based upon so as you send packing see, it has great significance to our society.Humans are believed to act in their own beat come out intimacys. We have our own free will and we also have a rational side to us. This was the introduction of the classical criminology theory. Being the case, this theory emphasized laws that would stress non criminal actions would be in the best interest of society. Punishment and deterrence was an important factor in this theory because the revengement had to reinforce deterrence so people could rationalize the self bene add ups of criminality from the consequences of criminality.Due to the fact that Beccaria believed that bad laws led to criminality, a swarm of his emphasis was based on preventing crime and swift punishment when crime was committed. In his eyes punishment is justified only to defend the peace of society and that society would be motivated to abide by it. This meant that punishment was to treat the criminal, incapacitate them from repeating criminal acts and deter would be criminals. To incorporate these ideas Beccaria believed that punishment should be swift, certain, deterrence, proportional to the crime, clear and based on positive and negative reinforcement. Swift punishment is believed to deter the about. accord to Beccaria, when punishment promptly follows the crime, the punishment will be reinforced in a per sons mind sooner they act criminally. A certain punishment is also a form of deterrence because the less would be criminals think they can get a way with, the more(prenominal) they will weigh in the consequences of that action. widely distributed deterrence is used for the purpose of setting and example for society. Laws should also be clear I specifycrimes. This will prevent judges from interpreting the law and only allow them to decide if the law has been broken. Lastly, the most effective way in preventing crime is to enact clear laws that reward good behavior and punish bad behavior.The theory of proportionality is another relationship between crime and punishment. The belief is that punishment can only deter if the punishment is proportional to the crime. The punishment must coincide with the crime in that the more serious the crime the more serious the punishment. Lastly, punishment existed to deter people from committing crime and the punishment should out way the gains o f committing the act. Beccaria was a believer in that crime was due to unjust laws not because of the people committing the acts. fit the crime. He argued that if the punishment was more excessive than the crime it would be an abuse of power by the bow and it would also create more crime.Beccaria was considered the founder of the classical school of criminology. He emphasized human rationality and free will, preventing crime and deterrence of crime. The classical criminology theory was different from the other theories that were introduced to us because it focused on the reasons why people commit crimes not on the deviant behaviors themselves. Beccaria and his followers had a great collision on our country it is what our constitution and current laws are based upon.Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Cesare Beccaria.http//www.utm.edu/research/iep/b/beccaria.htmKeel, Robert. Rational Choice and Deterrence Theory. http//www.umsl.edu/rkeel/200/ratchoc.htmlSiegel, Larry. Criminology. Canada Thomas Learning, Inc, 2003.

Donating Blood

Imagine that your father had just suffered a heart attack, and has to go by open-heart surgery in gear up to repair the damage that happened to his heart. Imagine your little nephew or niece was born with a rargon heart defect and had to have a daily transfusion of simple eye in order to have a chance to wake up the next day. Imagine that your best friend went to the cook and had just been diagnosed with leukemia, a disease requiring regular platelet transfusions. These arent actually nice things to imagine about, are they?It is truly sad and unfortunate, entirely these things happen all the time, you or someone you know may have experient something like that already. People experience something like this every day. Most people would probably just predict that the hospital would have decorous types of consanguinity to give to the people who need it so that they can countenance better. further that is not the case. In these sad cases most people would feel or want to do an ything that they can to help. There is one way everyone can help and that is by donating blood. crimson blood cells, platelets, and plasma are some of the things people can donate and they are also very important to a psyche who needs them. These can help the person return to good health. Some of the types of people who would need a blood transfusion are patients that have gone through surgery, burn victims, accident victims, anemics, hemophiliacs, babies that are very sick, and people suffering from leukemia, cancer, kidney disease, and liver disease. Some in truth interesting facts about the blood donations and the need for blood is that about every three seconds there is someone in the world who needs blood.Thats more than forty thousand people who need blood every day. The demand for blood is constantly uprising and sometimes a certain type of blood can be in short lend which can ascribe lots of peoples lives in danger. Even if you just donate once, that will be enough to save several people. I myself have gone to a blood donation clinic, but unfortunately I couldnt donate any blood because my temperature was too high, but I wont let that discourage me from re-scheduling different appointment at the American Red Cross blood.The set up that they had there was not what I had expected it to be. There have been a few blood drives at my domesticate but I never donated blood. American red cross came about two times each school yr around the middle of every semester. Everything was set up inside the gym with around a twain dozen of beds, where they make you lie down while they take your blood, spread around the basketball court. sometimes they even brought the little camping trailers where you can go inside of it and theyll take your blood.The day before I had made my appointment online at 400 PM to donate platelets. When I byeed in the American Red Cross clinic I model it was going to be much bigger like the ones that were at my school gym but inst ead there were only about a dozen beds in a little area to the left of the entrance. I Started walking towards the area where everyone was donating at, but then I was stopped. A short Latino man with black hair around his forties came up to me and asked Can I help you? .Since it was my first time going someplace to donate blood, I didnt know what to do. I thought that since I made an appointment at four that I would just be able to walk in, confirm that I was the one that had made the appointment, lie down on the bed, and they will take my blood, but I was gravely misinterpreted. As I was just standing there not knowing what to do I said to the man Ummm yeah. I made an appointment online to donate platelets. He asked me if I had a donors card and i replied no.Then after explaining to him that i have never given blood before so this was all new to me, he gave me a look like he finally understood why I was so clueless. Now that we were finally on the same page, the man asked for my drivers license so that I could prove I am who I say I am. When i gave him my drivers license he went somewhere to another room. While he went to go do his thing, I was instructed to sit down and read a binder that looked at least 6 inches thick.I centeringbed the binder from the table and just sat there smell at the front cover thinking to myself They expect me to read everything thats in this huge binder? . But when I opened it up, I was relieved to see only a few pages. As I finished reading about donating blood and the requirements, the man came back with my drivers license attached to a tract with a paper clip. I was asked if I was ready and I said yes. I was taken to this really small square room that almost made me feel closterfobic and then I was told to sit down.I took a seat and then he also sat down in a small desk in the corner of the room next to me. I was asked a few questions like my social security number, where I lived, do I have any diseases, my age, a whole bunc h of questions. It felt like I was being interrogated. As he finally got done asking me all those questions, he told me that he requisite to poke a little needle in my finger and get a small blood sample. As I was sitting there with my finger sticking out I saw him grab what looked like a small clicking pen.Then he started to put the end on the top of my finger. Suddenly he just clicked the pen, and I felt a little poke and my finger started bleeding. He wiped my finger with a small cotton ball and then grabbed a little square piece of glass and put in on my finger to get a small blood sample. After he told me I had enough iron in my blood to donate, now he had to take my temperature. I had to put a thermometer under my tongue for a few seconds until he grabbed it. One of the requirements for donating blood is you cannot donate if your temperature is over 99.5 F. When my temperature was taken I was only 2 percent away from meeting the requirements, which means my temperature was 99 . 7 F. I was told I couldnt donate which made me a little disappointed. I told him I would reschedule again some other time. In my one day that I went to the American red cross building I versed a lot of new things and how I can help save peoples lives. I will by all odds be making another appointment soon and ill keep making an appointment as much as I can.

Media coursework

The age 1425 is an let target auditory modality for the story line I have chosen. My comic al-Quran is also aimed at boys which is stereotypical but I found that during my research cost boys buy darker, gorier comic books so this helped me dive the colors for my abomination comic book front cover.My comic book also represents the social conclave of people who Like dark, gothic, horror comics. I have achieved this through the use of dark colors. By apply the Image of a superhero standing tall on the front of the page, this brings In the serious feel to horror. This smoke then be seen as the person In the image not wanting to mess about, linking to the horror theme again-I researched lots f gothic comic books before so had a very life-threatening knowledge of what a typical horror comic book front cover looked like.In this image I decided to make the moon brighter to show the amount of light against the dark colors. Also, this made the comic book front cover stand out more to my audience. Using photos I also cut nigh the circle to there was no black to make the moon be more clear to the audience against the dark background. Through the process of constructing my product I have become much more good at using photos than I was before.It gave me a chance to use a lot of the features which I had not used before such as the lasso tool which I found extremely implemental when transferring images onto my front cover. I used photos to edit my photos to make them look darker. If I was going to repeat this subsidisation I would of liked to of chosen a different purely because I am a girl so I am not very interested it that theme. Also, I would of liked to of chosen a different layout for my product because I feel like my comic book was not very master key or creative.

Importance of Events in Popular Music Essay

How do we rec everywhere the importance of historical events in set offular practice of medicine?Why should we determine the importance of historical events in popular music? Whats important to unrivaled rooter of an artist is completely different to the views from a fan of a nonher artist.Its not safe what makes the papers , magazines and tv that matters to fans. News close artists is broadcasted in many a way in todays world, mostly because stars and their goings on atomic number 18 more than important to the general existence than they deal ever been before. people alike to opine up to artists or in most cases now look down on their drug abuse or outrageous behavior and bring back the candor that we be all the same and can all go through the same tough clippings. euphony is the most favoured thing in alot of peoples lives today. Ipods and mp3 players ar fewthing that a vast majority of people carry some with them religiously and would feel empty without. Its on ly human that people are interested in what their favorite artist looks like, where they come from and their general background. This however has lead to artists lives universe intruded and covered across various news program feeds and social networks more than ever before. General public forget that there are in point 2 arrays to an artist. The berth that we see when we they are on tour and their natural human side. When they are on stage they are a musician. when they are not on stage they are classed as a celebrity whether they like it or not. Quote taken straight from the second line of wikipedia when the well sleep togethern name Amy Winehouse is searched Winehouse is beat known for her powerful contralto vocals, substance abuse and mental health issuesOn a website much(prenominal) as Wikipedia its their job to write a biography on famous people. They baffle to include stories from severally persona. The person they are writing active is a celebrity and they are a celebrity for a reason. Its wikipedias job to tell everyone who they are and how they got there. After reading the article on Amy it would att stamp out that in some instances the occurrence that she has been caught smoking crack and been wandering round high in public in just her bra outweigh the better points about her race. Having then come across a Talk page that gets raised if people arent happy with the way something is written it would calculate my points were mitigate about this article This article covers Winehouse being photographed bloody and bruised, high, wandering in public in a bra, drug overdoses, being recorded smoking crack it covers her health issues, her brushes with the law, in fact, every thing that has occurred over last year and a half. That the article doesnt denigrate or make judgments or pronouncements about her attests to its neutrality, not a bias.Straight away in this article the writer makes source to Amys downfalls making this a more noticeable point to begin with. If someone had heard a song by Amy on the radio and decided they wanted to know more about her as an artist they would be immediately switched off by the statement best known for substance abuse and mental health issues this leaving an even bigger dent in a ruined fan base when the fact she had drug issues could name been kept as a minor point and concluded with the fact that that military man of news happened quite a while ago and shes doing alot better and back in the studio apartment recording her third album. But theres also the argument that people need to know everything about her with it being a biography about a famous person. It would be bias of wikipedia to not mention the troubled aspects of her life aswell as her achievements in the music industry.Theres more news about artists going downhill than the fact their album may have been at number one for a matter of weeks because its what the public are eager to hear about. Writers are always looking f or damaging points to make about musicians as it gains kudos for them, the public love to gossip about others that are in a bad way and going through hell rather than gossiping about the fact someones been at number 1 for 10 consecutive weeks. Its like some peoples lives depend on wether Winehouse has had another drug outrage and been forced into rehab again.We only knew Miss Winehouse for a short period of time before she was swept off the our headlines to rehab. This thought pattern lead me to thinking of an artist that had been round for a longer period of time that had asleep(p) through a rough patch before their career crumbled.If we look back to a piece of musical news I found online from the 60s the way the articles are worded sound like the writer is writing the article with respect to the artist. Talking about what is happening to the artist at the time of course tho in a way that is honorific and shows that the writer send words the problems that the artist in questio n is going through and has an appreciation for the music they make.These two cats seem to add that final dimension that was missing before in Hendrixs live music. On the argon You Experienced album, he taped over his own rhythm guitar, so as to have some sort of melody to fall back on. Larry Lee now keeps it present all the time.The writer makes reference to the good things that have happened. Things that have changed the way the certain musicians music is written and how it has come to benefit upcoming material. The article in question is talking about Hendrixs gigs and his backing band and does mention the drugs he was taking at the time. The writer consistently praises Jimi and his band and only makes reference to the drugs right at the end of the article of which consists of one line.The drugs were found directly on top of habit inside his luggage. Now who puts their lay aside right on top? Especially well-travelled freaks like Mr. Jimi, through border crossings. When he repo rted to the Toronto medical examining board, his body was found clean and pure. Aint a trace a snitch in Jimi but the word-of-mouth-and-press was not so clean.Even when making reference to the drugs the writer details the happenings in a jokey way as if to say Silly Ol Jimi like the writer was close to Jimi or actually admired him.When relating this back to todays news about stars you can tell alot has changed in the way we really appreciate musicians. The public go through years of enjoyment from an artist and their music, relating songs to their personal experiences but as in short as the star does something even as minute as forgetting to put knickers on they are slated and the writer jumps to obsurd conclusions such as the star must have forgotten to put knickers on because they had been taking drugs or drinking copious amounts of alcohol. Theres no appreciation for the artist and no respect for the way the artist feels.Jimi Hendrix died of an apparent drug overdose on the 18t h September 1970. It was the destruction of someone who had created the backbone of R&B and rock music that musicians still use today. He created so many different techniques on the electric guitar that musicians class as basics or must haves today. The drug overdose that killed him is what has urged me to talk about Jimi. I was intrigued to see how writers spoke about him once he had gone and how people still remember him today. I wanted to see wether people remembered his celebrity side more or actually did remember him for the musical legend that he was and still is today. Drugs in the psychedelic 1960s were use by many people for recreational reasons. LSD was the drug of the century, lots of other musicians used it and fans used it to enjoy music to its full potential. That was a regular occurrence in the 1960s but after Jimi died of a drug overdose it becomes that little bit more concerning and people wanted to deduct digging for reasons as to why hed want to kill himself.I d ont want to be a clown anymore. I dont want to be a rock and roll star, Jimi says, emphatically. The forces of contention are never addressed but their pervasiveness has taken its toll on Jimis stamina and peace of mind. Trying to remain a growing artist when a ancestry empire has nuzzled you to its bosom takes a toughness, a shrewdnessNote the fact Jimi states star when he speaks. He had had enough of the stardom that being a good musician brings. His story relates to Kurt Cobains story in the way that them being celebrities and their lives being invaded all the time got far too much for them. The clown part of the quote could tie to the fact that clowns are a form of entertainment and people watch their every move when they are around. Jimi Enjoyed being a musician but was sick of people consistently following him around and he wasnt able to get time to himself.Lest anyone forget, Leacock Pennebakers Monterey Pop has immortalized his pyromaniacal affair with the guitar. carry media bedroom talk makes him King Stud of the groupies. Stories circulate that he is rude to audiences, stands up writers, hangs up photographers, that he doesnt talk.The way the writer speaks about this problem is in a respectable way, saying pop has ruined his relationship with his guitar. They dont slate him for wanting to just be one side of the coin. Today musicians have two personas because it seems right to be that way. medicinal drug to them is work and its a shame that they have to be followed when theyre not doing their work. When anybody else finishes work they leave and become themselves again. Theres no rules when youre yourself. You can drink where you like, say what you want, do whatever you like, wear what you want but being a musician has its limits. The public eye is always on you, you have to be wearing the right clothes whenever you leave the house and you have to look good when you leave the house. Today you cant just be a musician, youre a celebrity aswell and once the celebrity lifestyle has a get to of you theres no turning back.Looking at other articles from the 1960s it seems that alot more was reliable at the time. Drugs such as LSD, heroin, amphetamines and cannabis were widely used in the fan world and in the musical world. In todays world drugs are much less tolerated and forces crack down alot more on them. People have generally grown up knowing that drugs are bad and not welcome and that you should never go near them. Back in the 1960s people were persuading others to use recreational drugs to have a good time with them. With the case being that drugs were alot more accepted in the 1960s writers at the time had less to write about musicians lives and more about the way they perform and the way their music is put together.Jimi Hendrixs remainder was a turning point for popular music. A massive go against had to be filled and for years other artists have pioneered to become the new Jimi Hendrix, a true guitar hero. His death was so shocking that people still write about him and his achievements today. The music in the 60s was so much more important than the stardom that people seek today which is why we remember Jimi Hendrix for his Music and Not his Drug abuse like Amy Winehouse.